Chu (state)
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Chǔ (楚) was a kingdom in what is now central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period (722-481 BC) and Warring States Period (481-221 BC). Its ruling house had the surname mi (芈), and clan name xiong (熊), and originally was of the noble rank of zi, roughly comparable to a viscount.
It was originally known as Jing (荆) and then as Jingchu (荆楚). At the height of its power, the Chu kingdom occupied vast areas of land, including the present-day provinces of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing, Henan, Shanghai, and parts of Jiangsu. The Chu capital was at Ying (郢), around modern-day Jingzhou, which is located in what is today Hubei province.
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[edit] History
The land of Jing was inhabited by the native Chu people. The early Chu state was ruled by an aristocracy with close affinity to the Zhou kings, with its capital at Danyang. Prior to the dissolution of Zhou's power, the territory was transferred by authority of the King Cheng of Zhou (1042-1021 BC) of Western Zhou to Xiong Yi.
In its early years, Chu was a successful expansionist and militaristic state. Chu developed a reputation for coercing and absorbing its allies. Chu grew from a small, dependent state into a large empire worthy of contention, even attaining the traditional title of one of "The Five Overlord States of the Spring and Autumn Period" (春秋五霸). Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing the lesser states within its immediate vicinity in Hubei; then, it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances against Chu and its allies; these alliances successfully kept Chu in check, with its first major victory at the Battle of Chengpu. During Chu Wenwang's reign (689-677 BC), the Chu capital transferred to Ying (郢), near Jingzhou in modern Hubei Province.
The kingdom's power continued even after the end of the Spring and Autumn period in 481 BC. Chu overran Cai to the north in 447 BC. However, by the end of the 5th century BC, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient with much of the state's treasury to pay for a large official retinue. Many officials had no meaningful task to the state except taking money. Thus, Chu's large army was of low quality due to poor funding.
In the late 390s BC, King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) made Wu Qi his prime minister. Wu Qi's reforms began in 389 BCE to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state, lowering the salaries of officials and removing useless ones. He also enacted building codes to make the capital, Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's massive unpopularity with the Chu government (except the King), his reforms made Chu very powerful until the late 4th century BC, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army annexed Chen and Cai states, defeating the states of Wei and Yue. However, Wu Qi was assassinated by the Chu officials at the funeral of King Dao in 381 BC.
During the late Warring States Period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the legalistic reforms of Shang Yang. Chu's size and power made it the key state in alliances against Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. In 333 BC, Chu and Qi partitioned and annexed the coastal state of Yue.
By the late Warring States period (about the late 4th century BC), however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually subjugated by Qin.
According to the Zhan Guo Ce, a debate between Zonghengjia strategist Zhang Yi and the Qin general Sima Cuo on unifying China led to two conclusions. Zhang Yi believed conquering Han (state) and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the figurehead resident Zhou Dynasty would be wise. Sima Cuo considered Chu as its main rival in the struggle to unite the Warring States. Sima Cuo decided it was essential to control the fertile Sichuan Basin to increase agricultural output and most importantly, to control the upper reaches of the Yangzi River that led to the Chu heartland.
Sima Cuo, according to the Zhan Guo Ce, remarked, "得蜀则得楚。楚亡则天下并。"
To obtain Shu is to obtain Chu. Once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united.
King Huiwen of Qin decided to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BC, the Qin army conquered the Shu (state) and Ba (state) and successively expanded to the east in the following decades. In 278 BC, Qin general Bai Qi conquered Yingdu. Following the fall of Yingdu, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun (in today's Anhui province) in 241 BC.
At this critical moment when Chu was nearing annihilation, Qin set its strategic aims to Central China, especially the powerful Zhao (state). After a massive two year struggle, Bai Qi lured out, surrounded, isolated, forced the surrender of and massacred the main Zhao force of 400,000 men at Changping. After 260 BC, all major obstacles to Qin dominance ended and it was a matter of time until China's unification.
[edit] Qin's Conquest of Chu 225-223 BC
In 225 BC, only three kingdoms (states) remained independent: Chu, Yan and Qi. Chu had recovered significantly enough to mount serious resistance after their disastrous defeats to Qin in 278 BC and losing their centuries-old capital of Ying (Jingzhou). Despite its territorial size, resources and manpower, Chu's fatal flaw was its largely corrupt government that mostly overturned the legalistic-style reforms of Wu Qi 150 years ago, when Wu Qi transformed Chu into the most powerful state with an area of almost half of all the states combined. Ironically, Wu Qi was from the same state (Wei) as Shang Yang, whose legalistic reforms turned Qin into an invincible war machine at this stage.
The King of Qin, Ying Zheng, decided to finally defeat the remnants of the Chu state located in Huaiyang. According to Shiji, Ying Zheng had first asked his great general Wang Jian how many men he needed, but Wang Jian requested 600,000 men. Li Xing, ancestor to Han Dynasty general Li Guang, said 200,000 men would suffice. The first invasion was a disaster when 200,000 Qin troops were defeated by a counterattack and ambush of 500,000 Chu troops under Xiang Yan, who is related to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yan lured the Qin troops into a trap by allowing them a few initial victories. During the counterattack, Chu troops burned two large Qin camps. The Qin generals were Li Xing and Meng Wu, father of Meng Tian. Wang Jian was recalled and finally accepted to lead the second invasion force, requesting and receiving a force of 600,000 men. Wang Jian even asked for a lake, house and land for his descendants, responding to the Qin king's laughter that his extra requests will eventually pale once the empire is secured. The general continued to request luxury items and other commodities during the campaign. Wang Jian said to his dumbfounded officers that only by requesting more from the king, will the king have confidence in his general.
In 224 BC, the famed conqueror of the state of Zhao, Wang Jian, was recalled to lead a second invasion with 600,000 men. Chu's morale increased after their success in defeating a powerful Qin army the previous year. The Chu forces were content to await a siege. However, Wang Jian tricked the Chu army by appearing inactive in his fortifications but secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, Chu decided to disband due to inaction. Wang Jian then invaded and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu was finally conquered in 223 BC. During their peak sizes, both armies of Chu and Qin combined numbered over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two Qin regular soldiers, Hei Fu {黑夫} and Jin {惊}, tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under general Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies (clothing) and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.
The Chu realm at its most powerful was vast with many ethnicities and various customs. Despite the diversity, the Chu people were united by a common respect for nature, the supernatural, their heritage and loyalty to their ruling house and nobility, epitomized by the famed Chu statesman-poet Qu Yuan and the Chu Ci. The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, which was recorded in the excavated bamboo slips of a Qin administrator in Hubei, Xi{喜}. Chu was one of the last states to fall, only 11 years before the death of Qin Shihuang, and its people aspired of overthrowing the painful yoke of Qin rule and reestablishing the Chu state.
After Qin Shihuang's very short reign, peasants, soldiers and relatives of nobles and the ruling house of Chu quickly organized into violent insurrections against the repressive Qin governance, initializing the anti-Qin rebellion that spread to the rest of China. The people of Chu, whose culture was a naturalistic and Daoist one, were resentful of the forced labor under Qin, and folk poems recorded the mournful sadness of the Chu families of men who worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China. Eventually, two men from the Chu land, Liu Bang and Xiang Yu led the anti-Qin revolution and fought each other in the Chu-Han Contention to reunite and rule China. Liu Bang prevailed and created the Han Dynasty, ushering in an era of almost 400 years of unified rule with more than 200 years of great internal peace and prosperity.
The Chu people and customs were major influences in the new era of Western Han. Liu Bang immediately initialized the Daoist Wu wei governance, made peace with the Xiongnu through Heqin intermarriages, quickly rewarding his allies and giving them pseudo-fiefdoms, and allowing the population to rest from centuries of warfare. Eventually, by the time of Han Wudi, Chu folk culture in everyday lifestyles and Chu aesthetics were gradually amalgamated with state-sponsored Confucian ideals and Qin-styled centralized governance to create a distinct and unified "Chinese" culture, visible during the Eastern Han period.
[edit] Culture
Based on archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of other Zhou states. Later on, Chu culture absorbed indigenous elements as the state expanded to the south and east, developing a distinct culture from the traditional Northern Zhou states.
Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of bronze vessels in the Zhou style. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States Period, featured distinct Chu burial objects, such as colorful lacquerware, iron and silk, accompanied by a reduction in bronze vessel offerings.
A common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals and natural imagery, such as snakes, mystical dragons, phoenixes, tigers and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the vanished Shang dynasty, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites, such as motifs depicting serpent-tailed gods.
In terms of philosophy, the Chu culture and government strongly supported Daoism and native shaman folk beliefs supplemented with some Confucian ideals. The naturalistic and flowing art, the Chu Ci, historical records (Shiji), excavated bamboo documents (Guodian bamboo slips) and other artifacts reveal heavy Daoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state to the ruthless legalist state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output and created a system of ruthless efficiency under the minister Shang Yang, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might.
Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for employing shamanistic rituals. Chu was also known for its distinct music; archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou music; Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments; In Chu, the se was preferred over the qin, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states.
Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba, Yue and the Hundred Yue. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles were discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects.
The early rulers of the Han Dynasty romanticized the culture of Chu, sparking a renewed interest in Chu cultural elements such as the Chu Ci. Evidence of heavy Chu cultural influence during the early years of Han Dynasty appears in Mawangdui. After the Han dynasty, Chu developed an undeserved reputation for being a barbarian state; Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the "lewd" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture.
Chu artisanship shows a mastery of form and color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples were preserved in waterlogged tombs (this preserved lacquerware, which is vulnerable to peel off in dry conditions) and coal/white clay sealed tombs (this preserved everything extremely well, since fine white clay is extremely tight-packed). Mawangdui is the prefect example of well-sealed tomb.
As a southern state, Chu was close to the Wu-Yue influences. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords, but not as intricate. Chu also used the difficult to read script called "Birds and Worms (鸟虫文}" style, which was common in the Wu and Yue states.
Chu was in the region of many rivers, so it created an efficient riverine boat transport system augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade regulations around the capital, Ying.
[edit] Rulers
- Xiong Zao (楚熊蚤), assisted King Wen of Zhou, surname: Mi 芈 (or Nai 嬭, Qian 芊, Xiong 熊, Yan 酓)
- Xiong Li (楚熊麗), son of Xiong Zao
- Xiong Kuang (楚熊狂), ruled in the reign of King Cheng of Zhou: son of Xiong Li
- Xiong Yi (楚熊繹), ruled in the reign of King Cheng of Zhou, son of Xiong Kuang
- Xiong Yi (楚熊艾), son of Xiong Yi
- Xiong Tan (楚熊黵)
- Xiong Sheng (楚熊勝)
- Xiong Shang (楚熊煬) (or Xiong Yang 熊楊), son of Xiong Sheng
- Xiong Qu (楚熊渠), son of Xiong Shang
- Xiong Zhi (楚熊摯), born as Xiong Zhihong 熊摯紅, second son of Xiong Qu
- Xiong Yan (楚熊延), ruled ? - 848 BC: third brother of Xiong Zhi, usurped brother
- Xiong Yong (楚熊勇), ruled 848 BC - 838 BC: son of Xiong Yan
- Xiong Yan (楚熊嚴), ruled 837 BC - 828 BC: brother of Xiong Yong
- Xiong Shuang (楚熊霜), ruled 827 BC- 822 BC: son of Xiong Yan
- Xiong Xun (楚熊徇 (or 熊狥), ruled 821 BC - 800 BC: third brother of Xiong Shuang
- Xiong E (楚熊鄂) (or 熊咢), ruled 799 BC - 791 BC: son of Xiong Xun
- Ruo Ao (楚若敖) (Mi Xiong Yi 芈熊儀), ruled 790 BC - 764 BC: son of Xiong E
- Xiao Ao (楚霄敖) (Mi Xiong Kan 芈熊坎), ruled 763 BC - 758 BC: son of Ruo Ao
- King Li of Chu (楚厲王) {Fen Mao 楚蚡冒} (Mi Xiongxuan 芈熊眴 or Xiongxun 熊[日+旬]) ruled 757 BC - 741 BC: brother of Xiao Ao
- King Wu of Chu (楚武王) (Mi Xiongtong 芈熊通), 740 BC - 690 BC: brother of King Li
- King Wen of Chu (楚文王) (Mi Xiongzi 芈熊貲), ruled 689 BC - 677 BC: son of King Wu
- Du Ao, Ruler of Chu (楚堵敖) (Mi Xiongjian 芈熊艱), ruled 676 BC - 672 BC: son of King Wen
- King Cheng of Chu 楚成王 (Mi Jun 芈頵), ruled 671 BC - 626 BC: brother of Du Ao
- King Mu of Chu 楚穆王 (Mi Shangchen 芈商臣) ruled 625 BC - 614 BC: son of King Cheng
- King Zhuang of Chu (楚莊王) and Jing (荆莊王) (Mi Lü 芈旅) ruled 613 BC - 591 BC: son of King Mu
- King Gong of Chu (楚共王) (Mi Shen 芈審) ruled 590 BC - 560 BC: son of King Zhuang
- King Kang of Chu (楚康王) (Mi Zhao 芈招) ruled 559 BC - 545 BC: son of King Gong
- Jia Ao (楚郟敖) (Mi Jun 芈麇) ruled 544 BC - 541 BC: son of King Kang
- King Ling of Chu (楚靈王) (Mi Qian 芈虔) ruled 540 BC - 529 BC: uncle of Jia Ao
- King Bi of Chu (楚王比) (Mi Bi 羋比) ruled 529 BC - 529 BC: brother of King Ling
- King Ping of Chu 楚平王 (Mi Xiongju 芈熊居) ruled 528 BC - 516 BC: brother of King Bi
- King Zhao of Chu (楚昭王) (Mi Xiongzhen 芈熊軫) ruled 515 BC - 489 BC: son of King Ping
- King Hui of Chu (楚惠王) (Mi Xiongzhang 芈熊章) ruled 488 BC - 432 BC: son of King Zhao. The year before he died, Marquis Yi of Zeng died, so he made a commemorative bell and attended the Marquis's funeral at Suizhou.
- King Jian of Chu (楚簡王) (Mi Xiong Zhong 芈熊中) ruled 431 BC - 408 BC: son of King Hui
- King Sheng of Chu (楚聲王) (Mi Xiong Dang 芈熊當) ruled 407 BC - 402 BC: son of King Jian
- King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) (Mi Xiong Yi 芈熊疑) ruled 401 BC - 381 BC: son of King Sheng
- King Su of Chu (楚肅王) (Mi Xiong Zang 芈熊臧) ruled 380 BC - 370 BC: son of King Dao
- King Xuan of Chu (楚宣王) (Mi Xiong Liangfu 芈熊良夫) ruled 369 BC - 340 BC: brother of King Su
- King Wei of Chu (楚威王) (Mi Xiong Shang 芈熊商) ruled 339 BC - 329 BC: son of King Xuan
- King Huai of Chu the First (楚前懷王) (Mi Xiong Guai 芈熊槐) ruled 328-299: son of King Wei
- King Qingxiang of Chu (楚頃襄王) (Mi Xiong Heng 芈熊橫) ruled 298 BC - 263 BC: son of King Huai. As a prince, one of his elderly tutors was buried at the site of the Guodian Chu Slips in Hubei.
- King Kaolie of Chu (楚考烈王) (Mi Xiong Wan 芈熊完) ruled 262 BC - 238 BC: son of King Qingxiang
- King You of Chu (楚幽王) (Mi Yu 芈煜) ruled 237 BC - 228 BC: son of King Kaolie or illegitimate son of Lord Chunshen (春申君)
- King Ai of Chu (楚哀王) (Mi Xiong You 芈熊猶 or Mi Hao 芈郝) ruled 228 BC - 228 BC: brother of King You
- King Fuchu of Chu (楚王負芻) (芈熊負芻 Mi Xiong Fuchu) ruled 227 BC - 223 BC: brother of King Ai
- Lord Chang Ping of Chu (昌平君) ruled 223 BC - 223 BC (Chu annexed to Qin): brother of King Fuchu
[edit] Pretenders
- Chen Sheng (陳勝) as King Yin of Chu (楚隠王) ruled 210 BC - 209 BC
- Jing Ju (景駒) as King Jia of Chu 楚假王 (Jia for fake) ruled 209 BC - 209 BC
- Mi Xiongxin (芈熊心) as Emperor Yi of Chu (楚義帝) (originally King Huai II 楚後懷王) ruled 209 BC - 206 BC: grandson or great-grandson of King Huai I of Chu
- Xiang Yu (项羽) as Hegemonial King of Western Chu (西楚霸王) ruled 206 BC - 202 BC
[edit] Famous people
- Famed poet Qu Yuan hailed from Chu. A government minister and a patriot, he had advocated uniting with the other states to combat the rising hegemon Qin, yet to no avail; he was banished by the king of Chu. According to tradition, such was his grief upon learning of the Qin invasion, he committed suicide in the Miluo River. The Duanwu Festival honors his death for his country.
- Warrior King Xiang Yu, also known as "Overlord of Western Chu"; he destroyed every single Qin army and also was rival to Han Dynasty founder Liu Bang. He was fearsome in the battlefield but arrogance lead to his downfall.
- Han Dynasty founder Liu Bang. He was born in Pei County, in modern Xuzhou, which is in northern Jiangsu. An intelligent statesman and ruler, he defeated the military genius Xiang Yu through his ability to attract and command talented generals and allies. After the formation of Western Han Dynasty, a blossoming of interest in Chu culture arose under Liu Bang's patronage.
[edit] See also
- Chu Ci
- Guodian Chu Slips
- King Zhuang of Chu
- Song Yu
- Wu Qi
- Mawangdui
- Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
- Chu silk manuscripts
- Lord Chang Ping of Chu
- Tsinghua Chu Slips
[edit] References
- Defining Chu: Image And Reality In Ancient China, Edited by Constance A. Cook and John S. Major, ISBN 0-8248-2905-0
- So, Jenny F., Music in the Age of Confucius, ISBN 0-295-97953-4
[edit] Further reading
- Cook, Constance. Death in Ancient China: The Tale of One Man's Journey. Leiden: Brill, 2006 ISBN 90-04-15312-8
