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Right-wing politics

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In politics, right-wing, political right, rightist and the Right are terms applied to positions that focus on preserving traditional or cultural values and customs and maintaining some form of social hierarchy.[1][2][3][4] The phrase right-wing was coined during the French Revolution, when right-wing referred to seating arrangements in parliament; those who sat on the right supported the monarchy, the aristocracy and the established church.[5][6][7]

The concept of a distinct political Right developed after the second restoration of the monarchy in 1815 with the Ultra-royalists. Today the term the Right is primarily used to refer to political groups that have a historical connection with the traditional Right, including: conservatives, reactionaries, monarchists, aristocrats, religious fundamentalists, and nationalists. But in modern times, the right has also encompassed views supporting capitalism and free markets.[8]

Contents

[edit] History of the term

See also: Left-Right politics

The political term right-wing originates from the French Revolution when liberal deputies from the Third Estate generally sat to the left of the president's chair, a habit which began in the Estates General of 1789. The nobility, members of the Second Estate, generally sat to the right. In the successive legislative assemblies, monarchists who supported the Ancien Régime were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. One major right-wing figure was Edmund Burke whose political principles were rooted in moral natural law. He believed in prescriptive rights and what he referred to as "ordered liberty", as well as a strong belief in transcendent values that found support in such institutions as the church, the family, and the state.[9] He was a fierce critic of the principles behind the French Revolution, and in his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), he took to task the radical innovations of the revolutionaries, such as the "Rights of Man". Another major figure on the right was Joseph de Maistre who argued for a more authoritarian and less liberal form of conservatism. Throughout the 19th century, the main line dividing Left and Right in France was between supporters of the Republic and those of the Monarchy.[10] On the right, the Legitimists and Ultra-royalists held counter-revolutionary views and rejected any compromise with modern ideologies while the Orleanists hoped to create a constitutional monarchy, under their preferred branch of the royal family, a brief reality after the 1830 July Revolution. The Bonapartists advocated the idea of a strong and centralized state, based on popular support.

Since then the term right-wing has come to be associated with preserving the status quo in the form of institutions and traditions. Burkean traditionalism was transported to the American colonies, where it became characterized by an adherence to the legal principles of prescription and custom, as well as social order, hierarchy, faith, the natural family, ordered liberty, and tradition. It may have affinities with reactionary thought, and some adherents of Burkean traditionalism embrace that label, defying the stigma that has been attached to it in Western culture since the Enlightenment.

Traditionally, historians and social scientists identified the political spectrum on the basis of class, with left, right and center representing the working, upper and middle classes. While these cleavages developed at the time of the French revolution, they deepened in the 19th century and both right and left accepted the class nature of their positions. While universal suffrage, the acceptance of democracy and regional and religious division blurred the distinction between the groups, the analysis continued to be applied. The most usual ideologies of left, right and center were socialism, conservatism and liberalism.[11] Seymour Martin Lipset saw modern political parties as continuing the historical class cleavages that led to their creation.[12]

Louis Hartz identified the mainstream political ideology of America as Lockean liberalism and saw the two main opposing forces in American history as Whig and democrat, representing the wealthy and the masses, but both accepting liberal principals and therefore centrist.[13] Russell Kirk however argued that the American Revolution had been a conservative reaction and therefore the term conservative could apply to American politics.[14] Although Kirk's theory gained very little academic acceptance, it popularized the term conservative in the United States and it was adopted by the New Right and later by the majority of the Republican Party and blue dog Democrats. Lipset coined the term radical right in 1955 to describe radical groups opposed to social reforms and foreign interventionism[15] and the term right later came to be applied to American conservatism. In other English-speaking countries however, the term has received less acceptance, and is usually considered pejorative.[16]

Friedrich Hayek wrote that it was incorrect to represent the political spectrum as a line with socialists on the left, conservatives on the right and liberals in the middle. Instead he suggested seeing each group as pulling at the corner of a triangle. The socialists had by mid-twentieth century pulled harder, so that the entire political spectrum had shifted to the left and socialist ideas had become respectable. In the United States however the difference between conservatives and liberals was obscured by the fact that it was possible to defend individual liberty by defending established institutions, as the American tradition was liberal. He thought that the attempt to transplant the European type of conservatism to America had created confusion in viewing the political spectrum as had the tendency of American radicals and socialists to call themselves liberals.[17]

[edit] Varieties

The spectrum of right-wing politics ranges from centre-right to far right. By the late 19th century, the French political spectrum classified the center-right as Constitutional Monarchists, Orleanists, and Bonapartists, and the far right as Ultra-Royalists and Legitimists. The centre-right Gaullists in post-World War II France advocated considerable social spending on education and infrastructure development, as well as extensive economic regulation but a limited amount of the wealth redistribution measures more characteristic of social democracy.

Today, the definition of the term centre-right is necessarily broad and approximate because political terms have varying meanings in different countries. Parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy, private property rights, the existence of the welfare state in some form and opposition to socialism and communism. Such a definition generally includes political parties that base their ideology and policies upon conservatism and economic liberalism.

The terms far right and radical right have been used by different people in conflicting ways.[18] The term far right is most often used to describe nationalist, religious extremist and reactionary groups as well as fascism and Nazism.[19][20][21][22] The BBC has called politician Pim Fortuyn's politics (Fortuynism) far right because of his policies on immigration and Muslims.[23] The term far right has been used by some, such as National Public Radio, to describe the rule of Augusto Pinochet in Chile.[24][25] Left-wing publication New Left Review called Ronald Reagan's policies "radical right".[26] The US Department of Homeland Security defines right-wing extremism as hate groups who target racial, ethnic or religious minorities and may be dedicated to a single issue, such as opposition to abortion or immigration.[27]

Right-wing populism is a combination of ethno-nationalism with anti-elitist populist rhetoric and a radical critique of existing political institutions.[28][29][30][31] India has witnessed the emergance of right-wing nationalism in the form of the Bharatiya Janata Party, which advocates conservative social policies. Some associate ethnic nationalism with the right.[28][32] According to scholars of fascism, there are both left and right influences on fascist ideology. They argue that fascism is a search for a third way among all these views.[33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41] Roger Griffin claims that fascist movements have become more monolithically right-wing, and fascism has become intertwined with the radical right.[42][43]

[edit] Positions

[edit] Social hierarchy

Right-wing politics sometimes involves the creation or promotion of a social hierarchy.[44] Right-wing politics views social and economic hierarchies as either natural or normal and rejects attempts to remove such hierarchies. For example, right-wing politicians in France during the French Revolution opposed the removal of the monarchy and aristocratic privilege.[45] Religious figures with right-wing views, as in the Roman Catholic Church after the French Revolution, typically called for the creation or restoration of the authority of religious institutions and the social hierarchy that was associated with religion.[46] Right-wing racialists believe that there is a racial hierarchy wherein superior races have a natural authority or supremacy over inferior races.[47] Right-wing economics involves the acceptance of a social hierarchy based on economic wealth and social class.[48]

The Right often advocates equality of opportunities as an alternative to equality of outcome.[49] The Right generally regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.[50] Russell Kirk, a major figure of American conservatism included "civilized society requires orders and classes" as one of the "canons" of conservatism.[51]

[edit] Social order

Many right-wing ideologies and movements support the social order. The original French right-wing was called "the party of order" and said that France needed a strong political leader to keep order.[10]

Latin Conservatism, founded by Joseph de Maistre, is uncompromising in its belief in the need for order. Maistre, like Thomas Hobbes before him, supported absolutism as the only means of avoiding violent disorder. Maistre, who fled the French Revolution, became convinced that ultra-liberal ideas, particularly Rousseau's theory of a "general will", had led to the horrors of the French Revolution and the bloodshed of the Napoleonic Wars. Maistre also objected to the quasi-secularism and self-indulgence of some late 18th century monarchies, and believed that state and church must remain inseparable. The principles of Maistre's Latin Conservatism were fully instituted in Spain under Francisco Franco.

In America, President John Adams supported a strong central government, and many of the Founding Fathers feared the influence of "the mob".[52]

Religious fundamentalists have often supported the use of political power to enforce their religious beliefs.[53]

While traditional right-wing politics supports legal and moral authority over those who would challenge such authority, the Libertarian Right, in contrast with the religious Right and the nationalist Right, is anti-authoritarian.

[edit] Nationalism

Nationalism was originally a left-wing and Republican ideology.[54] Nationalism became a main trait of the right-wing and, moreover, of the far right after the Dreyfus Affair.[55] The original right-wing nationalists endorsed ethnic nationalism and believed in defining a "true" national identity and defending it from elements deemed not part of the identity and corrupt.[10]

Linked with right-wing nationalism is cultural conservatism. Cultural conservatism supports the preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture, usually in the face of external forces for change. The culture in question may be as large as Western culture or Chinese civilization or as small as that of Tibet. Cultural conservatives try to adapt norms handed down from the past. The norms may be romantic, like the anti-metric movement that demands the retention of Imperial weights and measures in Britain and opposes their replacement with the metric system. They may be institutional: in the West this has included chivalry and feudalism, as well as capitalism, laïcité and the rule of law. Cultural conservatives often argue that old institutions have adapted to a particular place or culture and therefore ought to be preserved. Others argue that a people have a right to their cultural norms, their own language and traditions.

[edit] Economics

Historically, the Right has been more concerned with preserving the social order and majority religion than with economics. However contemporary right-wing ideologies and movements support capitalism. Right-wing libertarianism (sometimes known as libertarian conservatism or conservative libertarianism) supports a decentralized economy based on economic freedom, and advocates policies such as property rights, free markets and free trade. Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked.[56] Rafael Di Tella (Harvard Business School) and Robert MacCulloch (Imperial College London) claim that economic freedom correlates with right-leaning governments.[57] Ronald Reagan said in an interview: "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism."[58] The right's association with capitialism can be traced to the late 19th century.[10]

Many political movements outside the United States that are described as right wing favor Western-style corporate capitalism, but not full-fledged laissez-faire economics or individual autonomy. Governments in Singapore and Taiwan, which are strongly authoritarian and venerate tradition, have described an "Asian model" in which personal freedom is minimized and state capitalism is embraced. Some right-wing movements and parties have supported protectionism, such as France’s National Front. Conservative authoritarians and those on the far right have supported corporatism.[59]

[edit] Religion

Government support for the majority religion has from the beginning of the movement been a major part of right-wing politics. The original French right-wing supported the power of the Roman Catholic Church and opposed the secularization proposed by the anti-clerical forces of the Left.[10] Religious figures with right-wing views, as in the Roman Catholic Church after the French Revolution, typically called for the creation or restoration of the authority of religious institutions and the social hierarchy that was associated with religion.[60]

Joseph de-Maistre Maistre argued for the indirect authority of the Pope over temporal matters. According to Maistre, only governments founded upon a Christian constitution, implicit in the customs and institutions of all European societies but especially in Catholic European monarchies, could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation of rationalist political programs, as in the French Revolution.

The Christian right is a major political force in the West, supported by the Republican Party in the United States and by Christian Democratic parties in Eurpoe. They generally support laws upholding religious values, and laws against immigration, especially immigration by non-Christians.[61]

Hindu nationalism has been a part of right-wing politics in India. A form of conservative populism, the movement has attracted not only privileged groups fearing encroachment on their dominant positions, but also "plebeian" and impoverished groups seeking recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, order, and national strength.[62]

The Likud party in Israel expresses support for the Torah within the context of civil Judaism. Many Islamist groups have been associated with the right, such as the Great Union Party[63], the Felicity Party[64] of Turkey and the Combatant Clergy Association/Association of Militant Clergy ('Jame'e-ye Rowhaniyat-e Mobarez)[65][66] and the Islamic Society of Engineers[67][68] of Iran.

[edit] Anti-communism

Main article: Anti-communism

Early communist movements were at odds with the traditional monarchies that ruled over much of the European continent at the time. Many European monarchies outlawed the public expression of communist views, and the Communist Manifesto began "A spectre is haunting Europe," suggesting that monarchs feared for their thrones. Advocacy of communism was illegal in the Russian Empire, the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, the three most powerful monarchies in continental Europe prior to World War I. Many Monarchists (except Constitutional Monarchists) viewed inequality in wealth and political power as resulting from a divine natural order.

By World War I however, in most European monarchies, the Divine Right of Kings had become discredited and replaced by liberal and nationalist movements. Most European monarchs became figureheads; elected governments held the real power. The most conservative European monarchy, the Russian Empire, was replaced by the communist Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution inspired a series of other communist revolutions across Europe in the years 1917-1922. Many of these, such as the German Revolution, were defeated by monarchist military units.

The 1920s and 1930s saw the fading of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising fascist movements on the one hand, and by American-inspired liberal conservatives on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, as in the Republic of China in the late 1920s, their opponents were usually colonial authorities or local nationalist movements. Two examples of reactionary anti-communist dictatorships were the governments of Francisco Franco and Augusto Pinochet.

After World War II, communism became a global phenomenon, and anti-communism became an integral part of the domestic and foreign policies of the United States and its NATO allies. Conservatism in the post-war era abandoned its monarchist and aristocratic roots, focusing instead on patriotism, religion, and nationalism. Communists were also enemies of capitalism, portraying Wall Street as the oppressor of the masses. This led to an alliance of the right-wing, who saw communism as a threat to nationalism, religion, and the class structure, and capitalists, who saw communism as a threat to corporate interests.

The United States made anti-communism the top priority of its foreign policy, and many American conservatives sought to combat what they saw as communist influence at home. This led to the adoption of a number of domestic policies that are collectively known under the term "McCarthyism".

Throughout the Cold War, conservative governments in Asia, Africa, and Latin America turned to the United States for political and economic support. Some of these were authoritarian regimes, which - according to their critics - used the fear of communism as a means of legitimizing repression, the suspension of civil rights, and the abolition of democracy. Examples include South Korea under Syngman Rhee (see Jeju massacre), the Republic of China under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem, Indonesia under General Suharto, Zaire under Mobutu Sese Seko, Paraguay under Alfredo Stroessner and Chile under Augusto Pinochet.

During the 1980s, the conservative governments of Ronald Reagan in the United States, Margaret Thatcher in Britain, and Brian Mulroney in Canada followed a clearly anti-Soviet foreign policy that is credited by their supporters as a major factor in the fall of the Soviet Union and the democratization of Eastern Europe and other countries.

In the aftermath of the Cold War, communism is no longer seen as a major force in world politics, and therefore most conservatives are far less concerned with anti-communism. Nevertheless, right-wing anti-communism resurfaces anywhere that communist political groups make significant advances, such as in Nepal in recent years.

[edit] Science

The political Right often finds itself in opposition to scientific organizations, especially over such topics as evolution and global warming.[69][70][71][72]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Left and right: the significance of a political distinction, Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, pg. 37, University of Chicago Press, 1997.
  2. ^ Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fundamentalisms observed, "Reactionary right-wing themes emphasizing authority, social hierarchy, and obedience, as well as condemnations of liberalism, the democratic ethos, the "rights of man" associated with the legacy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, and the political and cultural ethos of modern liberal democracy are especially prominent in the writings and public statements of Archbishop Lefebere", p. 91, University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBN 0226508781, ISBN 9780226508788.
  3. ^ Seymour Martin Lipset, cited in Fuchs, D., and Klingemann, H. 1990. The left-right schema. Pp.203-34 in Continuities in Political Action: A Longitudinal Study of Political Orientations in Three Western Democracies, ed.M.Jennings et al. Berlin:de Gruyter
  4. ^ Lukes, Steven. 'Epilogue: The Grand Dichotomy of the Twentieth Century': concluding chapter to T. Ball and R. Bellamy (eds.), The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought.P.610-612
  5. ^ The Architecture of Parliaments: Legislative Houses and Political Culture Charles T. Goodsell British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1988), pp. 287-302
  6. ^ Gerhard Linski, Current Issues and Research in Macrosociology, Brill Archive, 1984, pg; 59
  7. ^ Barry Clark, Political Economy: A Comparative Approach, Praeger Paperback, 1998, pgs; 33-34.
  8. ^ Clark, William. Capitalism, not Globalism. University of Michigan Press, 2003. ISBN 0472112937, 9780472112937
  9. ^ American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia, Bruce Frohnen, Jeremy Beer, and Jeffrey O. Nelson, pp. 107-109, ISI Books, 2006
  10. ^ a b c d e Andrew Knapp and Vincent Wright (2006). The Government and Politics of France. Routledge. 
  11. ^ Political Man (1960) by Seymour Martin Lipset, pp. 131-133
  12. ^ Political Man (1960) by Seymour Martin Lipset, pp. 220
  13. ^ The Liberal Tradition in America (1955).
  14. ^ The Conservative Mind (1953) by Russell Kirk
  15. ^ "The Radical Right", British Journal of Sociology I (June 1955) by S. M. Lipset
  16. ^ Don't be "right" (2009) by John Redwood[1]
  17. ^ "Why I Am Not a Conservative", F. A. Hayek in The Constitution of Liberty (1960)[2]
  18. ^ Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000; Berlet & Lyons, 2000.
  19. ^ http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&id=YYdTvMmSYpEC&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=5Kjou7UerL&sig=K9uamjo6ogLg5lBlPkF7YbrjcJ4&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result
  20. ^ http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&id=Ual1NR2WPasC&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=K5bdSeB96U&sig=RC-_zQR3OGeCIj0c4vJv6EEHgAk&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPR7,M1
  21. ^ http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&id=sVZ8EUvJjJ4C&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=SMPfNA8ixk&sig=c_rZ76IsxCm_Kb959LzCekTHYek&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result#PPR5,M1
  22. ^ http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&id=JcJ5nr2MZfUC&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Y5MrmJz8lV&sig=GdDOAIrzoMgANd0XM1dDeMfnKa0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result
  23. ^ Pim Fortuyn: The far-right Dutch maverick, BBC
  24. ^ "A Dictator's Legacy of Economic Growth". 2006-09-14. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6069233. Retrieved on 2007-10-15. 
  25. ^ Who funds and runs the Politico? - Glenn Greenwald - Salon.com
  26. ^ Alan Wolfe: Sociology, Liberalism, and the Radical Right. New Left Review
  27. ^ Rightwing Extremism: current economic and political climate fueling resurgence in radicalization and recruitment
  28. ^ a b Canovan, Margaret. 1981. Populism.
  29. ^ Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany.
  30. ^ Betz, Hans-Georg (1994). Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312083908. 
  31. ^ Berlet, Chip and Matthew N. Lyons. 2000. Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort.
  32. ^ Betz, Hans-Georg (1994). Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312083908. 
  33. ^ Bastow, Steve (2003). Third Way Discourse: European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 074861561X. http://books.google.com/books?id=0J9DpxWxi14C&pg=PA93&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism&sig=ACfU3U21wyLLZwse3dYoyA7aXJoN9cYUsw. 
  34. ^ Macdonald, Hamish (1999). Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0748733868. http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g. 
  35. ^ Woolley, Donald Patrick. The Third Way: Fascism as a Method of Maintaining Power in Italy and Spain. University of North Carolina at Greensboro. http://books.google.com/books?id=SjOyGwAACAAJ&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism. 
  36. ^ Heywood, Andrew (2003). Key Concepts in Politics. Palgrave. ISBN 0312233817. http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g. 
  37. ^ Renton, Dave (1999). Fascism: Theory and Practice. Pluto Press. ISBN 0745314708. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ojtn0IT6LpgC&pg=PA28&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism&lr=&sig=ACfU3U29w491Co0j3H4s72KUCvx_36hSIQ. 
  38. ^ Kallis, Aristotle A (2003). The Fascism Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0415243599. http://books.google.com/books?id=tP2wXl5nzboC&pg=PA33&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism+eatwell&lr=&sig=ACfU3U049ZN8MGgXE7O87P1E2rKYDdUGnQ. 
  39. ^ Griffin, Roger (1991). The Nature of Fascism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312071329. http://books.google.com/books?id=fcn5ZtaPc7oC&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism+eatwell&lr=. 
  40. ^ Parla, Taha (1985). The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gökalp, 1876-1924. Brill. ISBN 9004072292. http://books.google.com/books?id=63weAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism&lr=&sig=ACfU3U22B0TsrgAkF0dKzH-tGewY7I5n2g. 
  41. ^ Durham, Martin (1998). Women and Fascism. Routledge. ISBN 0415122805. http://books.google.com/books?id=yA1Y5znKY1sC&pg=PA4&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism+eatwell&lr=&sig=ACfU3U00G6DB4k2NLWe5EMGpvsNKqyq5tA. 
  42. ^ Roger Griffin, Interregnum or Endgame?: Radical Right Thought in the ‘Post-fascist’ Era, The Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 5, no. 2, July 2000, pp. 163-78
  43. ^ ‘Non Angeli, sed Angli: the neo-populist foreign policy of the "New" BNP', in Christina Liang (ed.) Europe for the Europeans: the foreign and security policy of the populist radical right (Ashgate, Hampshire,2007). ISBN 0754648516
  44. ^ Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fundamentalisms observed. University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBNISBN 0226508781, ISBN9780226508788.
  45. ^ The Architecture of Parliaments: Legislative Houses and Political Culture Charles T. Goodsell British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1988), pp. 287-302
  46. ^ Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fundamentalisms observed. University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBNISBN 0226508781, ISBN9780226508788.
  47. ^ Shanto Iyengar, William James McGuire. Explorations in political psychology. Duke University Press, 1993. P. 208. ISBN 0822313243, ISBN9780822313243.
  48. ^ Ellen A. Brantlinger. Dividing classes: how the middle class negotiates and rationalizes school advantage. Routledge, 2003. P. 193.
  49. ^ Bobbio, Norberto, "Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction" (translated by Allan Cameron), 1997, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226062465
  50. ^ Bobbio, Norberto, "Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction" (translated by Allan Cameron), 1997, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226062465
  51. ^ http://www.heritage.org/Research/PoliticalPhilosophy/HL811.cfm
  52. ^ David McCullough, John Adams, Simon & Schuster, 2008, ISBN 9781416575887
  53. ^ Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fundamentalisms observed. University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBN 0226508781, ISBN 9780226508788.
  54. ^ William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 9780199252985, "An exuberant, uncompromising nationalism lay behind France's revolutionary expansion in the 1790s...", "The message of the French Revolution was that the people are sovereign; and in the two centuries since it was first proclaimed it has conquered the world."
  55. ^ Winock, Michel (dir.), Histoire de l'extrême droite en France (1993)
  56. ^ http://www.heritage.org/Research/PoliticalPhilosophy/HL811.cfm
  57. ^ "Why doesn't Capitalism flow to Poor Countries?" Rafael Di Tella (Harvard Business School) and Robert MacCulloch (Imperial College London)
  58. ^ Inside Ronald Reagan, a Reason magazine Interview with Ronald Reagan, July 1975.
  59. ^ Fascism, Comparison and Definition, Stanley Payne, University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0299080641, 9780299080648, pg 19: "Right radicals and conservative authoritarians almost without exception became corporatists in formal doctrines of political economy, but the fascists were less explicit and in general less schematic."
  60. ^ Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fundamentalisms observed. University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBNISBN 0226508781, ISBN9780226508788.
  61. ^ http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-06-08-voa4.cfm, "Conservative parties across Europe are cheering their victory, following four days of voting for the E.U. Parliament that resulted in heavy losses for the left."
  62. ^ Thomas Blom Hansen, The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India, Princeton University Press, 2001, ISBN 140080342X, 9781400803422
  63. ^ http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/68827/rescue-teams-could-not-reach-turkish-party-leader-muhsin-yazicioglu-after-helicopter-crash.html
  64. ^ http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=6073
  65. ^ Elections Summaries for POLS 168 -- Middle East Politics (Fall 2007)
  66. ^ Poll test for Iran reformists
  67. ^ http://www.merip.org/mero/mero020101.html
  68. ^ Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Mahjoob Zweiri, Iran and the rise of its neoconservatives: the politics of Tehran's silent revolution, I.B.Tauris, 2007.
  69. ^ https://www.irr.org.uk/cgi-bin/news/open.pl?id=4447, "Christian school teaches right-wing creationist theories, by Liz Fekete, 1 August 2002, 'The government policy of funding for faith schools has been criticised after it was revealed that the Emmanuel City Technology College in Gateshead is teaching creationism - that human origins are (relatively) recent and divine - as opposed to scientific evolution, to explain our origins.'
  70. ^ http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/Intro.html, "Biological evolution is one of the most important ideas of modern science. Evolution is supported by abundant evidence from many different fields of scientific investigation. It underlies the modern biological sciences, including the biomedical sciences, and has applications in many other scientific and engineering disciplines."
  71. ^ http://www.businessandmedia.org/printer/2009/20090603093737.aspx, "ABC Turns to Doomsday Propaganda to Push Global Warming Solutions, Network spends two hours predicting future, promoting Obama and left-wing climate ideas" by Dan Gainor, The Boone Pickens Free Market Fellow Business & Media Institute, 6/3/2009, 10:38:07 AM
  72. ^ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15857761/,Muslim creationism makes inroads in Turkey, by Tom Heneghan, Reuters, Nov. 22, 2006, "Creationism is so widely accepted here that Turkey placed last in a recent survey of public acceptance of evolution in 34 countries — just behind the United States." "Darwinism did become an issue during the left-vs.-right political turmoil before a 1980 military coup because Communist bookshops touted Darwin’s works as a complement to Karl Marx. 'It looked like Marx and Darwin were together, two long-bearded guys spreading ideas that make people lose their faith,' said Istanbul journalist Mustafa Akyol.

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